R E V I E W : : C O N S O R T I U M: Marx: Victorian England and Machines

Focus on capitalism's consequences, particularly alienation and its social implications.
This section continues from Part 1 discussing labor dynamics and class conflict in capitalist societies.

Known for severe working conditions that defined the industrial era, with long hours, low wages, and unsafe environments.
The rise of machinery marked a significant shift in production, influencing worker productivity and labor dynamics.
Marx's Value Theory asserts that value inherently comes from labor; while machines can store value, they do not generate new value on their own.
As machines function and age, they transfer some of their initial value to products but do not create additional value. This depreciation must be factored into the valuations of products over time.
Increased productivity through automation leads to a situation where products may contain less labor input, potentially decreasing their perceived worth and value over time.
Marx's long-term perspective suggests that automation may ultimately lead to a decline in profits as the labor component becomes diminished.

The tendency of the rate of profit to fall is a major source of controversy and debate among economists.
Capitalism incorporates several mechanisms to maintain and protect profits, including:
- Marking up prices irrespective of underlying labor costs to maintain profit margins.
- Cutting wages to reduce operational expenses, often at the cost of workers’ livelihoods.
- Outsourcing labor to lower-cost regions to diminish production costs effectively.
- Monopolistic practices and price-fixing, limiting competition and allowing companies to set prices independent of market forces.
In instances where these measures fail, economic crises such as recessions and depressions can occur, demonstrating systemic vulnerabilities.
Marx theorized that such crises are inherent to capitalism and suggest a form of economic instability that could eventually lead to the system's downfall.

Capitalism lacks automatic mechanisms to reduce labor needs despite advances in machine capabilities.
Profitability is closely tied to labor; without it, profit generation becomes a significant challenge.
Environmental and safety considerations often take a backseat to profit motives, leading to hazardous working environments.
Necessary changes to improve worker conditions and safety often require external intervention, such as government regulations, rather than spontaneous market correction.

Industrial advancements were expected to significantly liberate workers from the drudgery of labor.
However, the role of machines in capitalism tends to maximize profits, often resulting in the need for increased worker efforts rather than true liberation from labor.
This paradox leads to more intense exploitation rather than freeing individuals from repetitive tasks.

Alienation is defined both socioeconomically and psychologically as a state of unfulfillment and disconnection from one’s work and surroundings.
Personal connection to work diminishes, leading to people becoming foreign to their own world and experiences.
According to Marx, human labor is distinctive since it reflects conscious planning and creative expression, which is essential for personal fulfillment.
Marx introduces the concept of Gattungswesen (species-essence), highlighting a fundamental human drive to labor cooperatively rather than competitively.

Alienation from Products: Workers create products that they cannot personally enjoy or afford to buy, resulting in a disconnect from their labor output. Surplus value is extracted from the laborer by capitalists who reap profits without sharing in the fruits of labor.
Alienation from Laboring: Labor is frequently conducted under coercive pressures for mere survival, lacking personal fulfillment. Workers have minimal control over how their products are applied, marketed, or sold.
Alienation from Other Laborers: The capitalist framework promotes competition and individual gain over collective well-being, fostering a rivalry among workers. This hampers solidarity, as seen in conflicts between native workers and immigrant laborers.
Alienation from Species-Essence: Workers often labor for the profit of others, which detracts from personal or communal growth and development. Task segregation limits self-direction and subsequently diminishes personal satisfaction in work.

Critics argue that similar forms of hard labor existed under previous economic systems, such as feudalism, challenging Marx’s notion that capitalism uniquely alienates workers.
Additionally, it is posited that some jobs will always require human involvement, regardless of technological advancement and the rise of automation.

The overarching issues of capitalism, particularly concerning the theme of alienation, highlight deep-rooted systemic problems.
A transition to Part 3 will delve into Cultural Marxism, exploring how these themes manifest in modern society.